Time Series Modelling¶

For all the following models

The variable has to be stationary model
- Else, use non-stationary $\to$ stationary transformation
We drop parameters if they are significantly equal to 0

Forecasting Types¶

Single-Step Forecasting¶

Multi-Step Forecasting¶

Rather than building a model for each step, you can define the model as

\[ \Delta^d y_{t+h} = f(h) + \sum_{i=1}^p \alpha_i \Delta^d y_{t-1} + \sum_{i=1}^q \beta_i u_{t-1} + u_t \]

where

$h$ is the horizon
$f(h)$ is the captured mapping for $h$. You may have to perform binary encoding (such as one-hot, etc).

Forecast Confidence Interval¶

It shows the range upto which the forecast is expected to deviate

\[ \text{CI }{y_{t+h}} = \hat y_{t+h} \pm h \sigma_{y+h} \]

If standard deviation remains constant across all time points, $\sigma_{y+h} = \sigma_y$

Correlogram¶

If the correlogram of error term wrt previous lags has	Accepted?	Reason
all bars inside the marked lines	✅	$u_t$ has no auto-correlation
one/more bars outside marked lines	❌	$u_t$ has auto-correlation

Simple/Baseline Models¶

Method		$\hat y_{t+h}, \ h>=0$	Appropriate for
Average	Average of past values	$\overline{ \{ y_{t-k} \} }$
Naive	Last value	$y_{t-1}$	Random walk process (Consequence of efficient market hypothesis)
Seasonal Naive	Last seasonal value	${\large y}_{t+h-mk}$ where $m=$ seasonal period
Drift Method	Last value plus average change Equivalent to extrapolating line between first and last point	${\large y}_{t-1} + \overline{ \{ y_t - y_{t-1} \} }$

Where $k > 0$

Simulation Models¶

We do not use the observed values of the process as inputs

Preferred for long-term forecasts

Advantages¶

Simple & Intuitive
Non-parametric
Easy to aggregate

Disadvantages¶

Needs lots of data for good sample
Assumption required for new products
Assumes stationarity

Synthetic Data Generation using Gaussian Copula¶

You can use the below property to generate data similar to your original data $$ R \Alpha^{½} E \sim N(0, \Sigma) $$

$R$ is an $n \times 1$ random normal vector
$\Alpha^{1/2}$ is an $n \times n$ diagonal matrix with square roots of eigen values
$E$ is matrix of Eigen vectors
$\Sigma$ is covariance matrix of $X$

ETS Model¶

Errors, Trend, Seasonality

\[ \hat y_t = f(t, S, u_t) \]

Monte-Carlo Simulation¶

Allows us to model the random component of a process; can be used along with an existing model for systematic component

System needs to describable in terms of pdf

\[ \hat y_t = f(\hat y_{t-1}, u_t) \]

FIR Model¶

Only using input features

\[ \hat y_t = f(X_{t-k}, u_t) \]

$k$ is the no of lagged input features

Output Error Model/Recursive Forecasting¶

FIR model using past estimations also. Ideally you should develop a model for this (infinite-step forecasting), and then work on using the same model for multi-step forecasting.

\[ y_t = \sum_{i=p} \hat y_{t-i} +\sum_{i=\textcolor{hotpink}{0}} \hat X_{t-k} + u_t \]

State Space Models¶

Kalman Filter¶

GMM¶

Generalized method of moments

Find relationship b/w moments of random variables

Yule-Walker estimates